美国大融合

  HUNG ·  2008-07-03 08:59  ·  25530 次点击
美国大融合
THEBLENDING
OFTHEUNITEDSTATES
ByRochelleL.Stanfield
Foryears,JorgeDelPinal'sjobasassistantchiefoftheCensusBureau'sPopulationDivisionwastofitpeopleintoneat,distinctracialandethnicboxes:white,black,Hispanic,AsianorNativeAmerican.AsthesonofanAnglomotherandaHispanicfather,however,heknewallalongthatthetaskwasnotalwayspossible.
"MyidentityhasevolvedasbeingHispanic,althoughI'monlyhalf-and-half,"heexplained.Hesaidhethusunderstoodthefrustrationofinterracialcoupleswhohavealwaysbeenexpectedtoassignjustoneracetotheirchildrenwhentheyfilloutgovernmentforms."They'resaying,'Whyshouldwehavetochoosebetweentheparents?'"theCensusBureauofficialsaid.
Forthe2000decennialcensus,thatwillnolongerbethecase.Forthefirsttime,thecensusformswillallowpeopletocheckoffasmanyracesasapply.Asaresult,theCensusBureaushouldobtainabetterpictureoftheextentofintermarriageintheUnitedStates.
Intheabsenceofsuchadirectmethod,afewyearsagoveterandemographerBarryEdmonstonusedsophisticatedmathematicalmodelingtechniquestocalculatehowintermarriageischangingthefaceoftheUnitedStatesaspartofanimmigrationstudyhedirectedfortheNationalResearchCounciloftheAmericanAcademyofSciences.HisresearchwassummarizedinareportentitledTheNewAmericans:Economic,DemographicandFiscalEffectsofImmigration.ButastheCanadian-born,whitehusbandofsociologistSharonLee,aChinese-American,Edmonstonreallyneedednocomputertounderstandthetransformationunderwayinthissociety.Heandhisfamilyareliving,breathingparticipants.
ThefaceofAmericaischanging--literally.AsPresidentClintonhassaid,within30or40years,whentherewillbenosingleraceinthemajorityintheUnitedStates,"wehadbestbereadyforit."Forhispart,Clintonispreparingforthattimebytalkingaboutracialtoleranceandthevirtuesofmulticulturalism.Othersaredebatingimmigrationpolicy.AlmostalldiscussionfocusesonthepotentialdivisivenessinherentinanationthatisnolongerapredominantlywhitecountrywithamostlyEuropeanancestry.
Butafootbehindthescenesisanothertrendthat,ifhandledcarefully,couldbringthecountryclosertogetherratherthandriveitapart.Thisquietdemographiccounter-revolutionisadramaticupsurgeinintermarriage.
"Demographyisaveryintimatedeal,"notesBenJ.Wattenberg,aseniorfellowattheAmericanEnterpriseInstituteforPublicPolicyResearch(AEI)inWashington."It'snotaboutwhatactivistssay;it'saboutwhatyoungmenandwomendo.Andwhatthey'redoingismarryingeachotherandhavingchildren."
Edmonston'sstudyprojectedthatby2050,21percentoftheU.S.populationwillbeofmixedracialorethnicancestry,upfromanestimateofsevenpercenttoday.Amongthird-generationHispanicandAsianAmericans,exogamy--marriageoutsideone'sethnicgrouportribe--isatleast50percent,heandothersestimate.ExogamyremainsmuchlessprevalentamongAfricanAmericans,butithasincreasedenormously,fromabout1.5percentinthe1960stoeightto10percenttoday.
Suchaprofounddemographicshiftcouldtakeplacewhilenoonewaswatchingbecause,officially,noonewaswatching.Federalagenciestraditionallycollectedracialdatausingaformula--oneperson,onerace--similartothetime-honoredvotingprinciple.Thus,theCensusBureaucouldestimatethatoncensusformsnomorethantwopercentofthepopulationwouldclaimtobemultiracial.Intheabsenceofamorestraightforwardcount,noonecouldknowforsurewhatthedemographicsare.
That'sabouttochange.Afterthe2000census,theU.S.Governmentshouldhaveabetteridea.In1997,theOfficeofManagementandBudget,whichoverseesfederalstatisticalpractices,approvedadirectiveallowingpeopletocheckasmanyracialboxesastheybelieveapplytothem.Theshiftwasacompromisebetweenthedemandsofsomeinterestgroupsthatwantedtheadditionofa"multiracial"box,andthosethatobjectedtoanychange,fearingdilutionoftheirnumbers.
Togetreadyforthe2000census,theCensusBureauhasconducteddressrehearsalsinthreesitesaroundtheUnitedStates.InSacramento,California,5.4percentofthepopulationcheckedoffmorethanoneracialbox,nearlythreetimestheproportionexpectedbymanyexperts.Thenumbersalsodemonstratethatintermarriageisontherise.Amongpeopleover18yearsold,4.1percentcheckedmorethanonebox;amongthoseunder18yearsold,8.1percentdidso.
Meanwhile,intheabsenceofofficialnumbers,withtheheightenedtensionsurroundingracialissues,andwiththemutualsuspicionthatexistsamongcompetingracialandethnicinterestgroups,there'slittleagreementonwhatintermarriagewillmeanforU.S.societyinthefuture.
SomesociologistscallAsian-whiteandHispanic-Anglointermarriagesimplythelatestadditiontothemeltingpotthat,sincethestartofthiscentury,hasfusedsomanyIrish,Italian,GermanandotherfamiliesofEuropeanorigin.Butdespitetheriseinblack-whitemarriage,manydoubtthatAfricanAmericanswillbeincludedinthismix.
"IthinkthealmostineradicablelineinAmericaisbetweenblacksandallothers,"saysRogerWilkins,ahistoryprofessoratGeorgeMasonUniversityinsuburbanVirginiaandalongtimecivilrightsfigure."Blackshavealwaysbeentheindigestiblemass.Havingsaidthat,however,there'snodoubtthatsomethingishappening,"hecontinued."Justlookattheadsontelevisionbeautifulmodels,maleandfemale,whoarenotquitewhite.Aretheyamixtureofblackandwhite,blackandAsian,Hispanicandwhite?Youjustcan'ttell."
Othersanticipatethatthebedroomwillaccomplishwhatothercatalystscouldnot.DouglasJ.Besharov,anAEIresidentscholar,saidina1996articleinTheNewDemocratthatthegrowingnumbersofmixed-raceyouthrepresent"thebesthopeforthefutureofAmericanracerelations."
RamonaDouglass,presidentoftheAssociationofMultiEthnicAmericans,enthused,"We'relivingproofthatpeoplewithtwodifferentracesorethnicbackgroundscanlivetogetherinharmony,thatfamiliesactuallydofunction."Douglass'smotherisItalian-American,andherfatherisamultiracialblendofAfricanAmericanandNativeAmerican.
Ofcourse,manyportrayintermarriageasgradualgenocidethatwillculminateinthedisappearanceoftheirparticulargroup.ThatwasthetraditionalviewoftheJewishcommunity,whichthroughouthistorycloselyguardeditssmallnumbersfromlossthroughassimilation.ButtheveryhighrateofJewishout-marriagesinceWorldWarIIhascausedanofficialrethinkingamongtheprogressiveelementsofAmericanJudaism.Thesegroupsstillencouragemarriagewithinthefaith,butinsteadofshunningthosewhodomarrynon-Jews,theyarenowcourtingtheseintermarriedcouples.
"TheJewishcommunity,atleastitsliberalbranches,movedfromapostureofoutragetoapostureofoutreach,"explainedEgonMayer,whoisasociologyprofessoratBrooklynCollegeandformerco-directoroftheNorthAmericanJewishDataBankattheCityUniversityofNewYork(CUNY)."There'sbeenatremendousupsurgeineffortstoreachouttothesefamilies,toinvitetheminand,inaway,tohaveamulticulturalcakeandeatit,too."
AlthoughsociologistsarequicktopointoutthedifferencesbetweenJewsandotherminoritygroups,theynonethelessacknowledgethattheevolutionoftheJewishapproachtointermarriagemayprovideamodelforthenationasawholeasitdiscovers,andthenconfronts,theracialandethnicblendingoftheUnitedStates.
MeltingPot
ToseethenewfaceoftheUnitedStates,gotoagrocerystoreandlookataboxofBettyCrocker-brandfoodproducts.Betty'sportraitisnowinitseighthincarnationsincethefirstcompositepaintingdebutedin1936withpaleskinandblueeyes.Hernewlookisbrown-eyedanddark-haired.Shehasaduskiercomplexionthanhersevenpredecessors,withfeaturesrepresentinganamalgamofwhite,Hispanic,Indian,AfricanandAsianancestry.
AcomputercreatedthisnewBettyinthemid-1990sbyblendingphotosof75diversewomen.Thatprocesswasrelativelyquick,GeneralMillsInc.,spokesmenexplain.ButtheyacknowledgethatittookquiteawhiletospreadthenewimagetothewholerangeofBettyCrockerproducts.
Theslowpaceofthatprocessitselfcouldbeametaphorforgradualracialandethnicintermixinginthiscountry.Indeed,it'stakingalongtimeforthenewblendedAmericantosurfaceinsociety'sconsciousness.TigerWoods,theyounggolfgreat,publicizedthetrendbyidentifyinghimselfasCablinasian,amixtureofCaucasian,black,NativeAmericanandAsian.
Forthemostpart,themarketplace--notgovernment--isleadingthewayinthisevolution.Mixed-racemodels,particularlymen,areingreatdemand,accordingtofashionindustryexperts.Andmultiracialchildactorsarenowmorelikelytobetappedfortelevisionadvertisements.
Theadagenciesthathirethosemodelsandactors"arenotidealisticpeople,"Wilkinssaid."Theyareouttosellstuff,andtheystudytrendsverycarefully.So,whattheyseeisabigmarketouttherethatisreachedbybeautifulpeoplewhoarenotexactlywhite,orwhoareyearningforameltingpotAmerica."
Thatseriousscholarsshouldbetalkingaboutameltingpotisitselfareversal.AsametaphorforAmericandiversity,themeltingpotwasfirstdiscreditedafterWorldWarI,whentheEuropeanimmigrantsstreamingintoAmericancitiesformeddistinctethnicandnationalenclavesthatdidn'tmelttogether.
Thetimingwasoff,itturnedout,andthemetaphoricalpotwasinthewrongplace.InterracialandmultiethnicfusionstartedafterWorldWarIIandhappenedinthesuburbs.CityfolkmovedfromtheirItalian,Irish,PolishorJewishurbanneighborhoodsintodiffusesuburbansettings,thensenttheirkidstolargepublicuniversities,throwingthemtogetherwithyoungstersfromotherethnicbackgroundswho,nonetheless,camefromfamilieswithsimilarlifestyles.
"Mostpeoplemeettheirpotentialpartnerseitheratcollegeorwhentheystartworking,"saidsociologistLee,aUniversityofRichmond(Virginia)professorwhoisspendingsometimeasavisitingscholaratPortland(Oregon)StateUniversity."Whenyouhaveacollegeeducation,you'relikelytobeinamilieuwheretherewillbepeopleofallkindsofethnicbackgrounds,andthatincreasesthechancesofmarryingsomeonedifferentfromyourownethnicbackground."Leeisacaseinpoint,havingmetherhusband,Edmonston,directorofPortlandState'sCenterforPopulationResearchandCensus,whentheywerestudents.
DavidTseng,aspecialassistantintheU.S.DepartmentofLabor'sPensionandWelfareBenefitsAndyistration,tellsasimilarstory.HismothercamefromEcuador;hisfatherwasthesonofaChinesediplomatinWashington.Theirmarriageinthelate1950swasunusualforthetime.But,saysTseng,"Ithinkithelpedthatthepeoplewithwhomtheywerefriendlyandsocializedwithwereeducatedandintelligentandcomfortablewithpeoplefromotherlandsandcultures."
Thatdynamicisnowroutinelyseenamongnative-bornAsianAmericansandHispanicAmericans."We'reseeingveryhighratesofintermarriageforHispanicsandAsianswhoarelivinginfairlyintegratedareasoutsidetheirtraditionalareasintheSouthwestandWest,"Edmonstonpointedout.Hecitedastudythatshowedan80percentexogamyrateforyoung,native-bornAsiansinNewEngland(theU.S.Northeast),forexample.
Ironically,theriseinimmigrationandthetrendtowardmulticulturalismthatsomanyanalystsviewasmajorfactorsleadingtodivisivenessactuallycontributetothisblendingofracesandethnicgroups."Onceyoufragment...thesocietyintosomanydifferentethnicorigins,youmakeitmathematicallylessandlesslikelytomeetsomebodyofyourownethnicity,"saidWattenberg."That'swhathappened,basically,totheJewishpopulation."
Whetherblackswillfollowotherminoritiesintothemeltingpotremainsasubjectofdebate.Skepticspointtothemuchsmallerproportionofblack-whitemarriagesandsayitwon'thappensoon.Othersrespondthatthestatisticalbaseisverysmallbecause,until1967,suchmarriageswereillegalin19states.
CountervailingForces
Whilemanyforcesareatworktofacilitateintermarriage,othersmilitateagainstit.ThisisparticularlythecaseforAfricanAmericans.
Thegrowingsegmentoftheblackcommunitythatisgoingtocollege,enteringthemiddleclassandmovingouttothesuburbsisalsofollowingthegeneraltrendtowardintermarriage.ThistendencyisparticularlynoticeableinCaliforniaandincitiessuchasDallas(Texas),LasVegas(Nevada)andPhoenix(Arizona),whereresidentialsegregationhasbeenlesspronouncedthanintheoldernortheasternandmidwesternU.S.cities,accordingtoReynoldsFarley,whohasstudiedAfricanAmericanresidentialpatterns.InCalifornia,forexample,among25-to-34-year-oldAfricanAmericans,14percentofthemarriedblackwomenand32percentofthemarriedblackmenhadspousesofadifferentrace,Edmonstonnoted.
ButintheisolatedurbanneighborhoodsoftheU.S.NortheastandMidwest,theoldpatternremains."Thereisaconsiderablefractionoftheblackpopulationthatstilllivesininner-cityareas--inDetroit,Chicago,NewYorkCity--thathasnotbeencaughtupindynamiceconomicgrowth,"saidFarley,formerlyaprofessorattheUniversityofMichiganandnowavicepresidentoftheRussellSageFoundationinNewYorkCity."They'vebeenleftbehind,andtheyarequitefaroutofit."
Anothercountervailingforceisimmigration.Immigrantsgenerallydon'tmarryoutsidetheirracialorethnicgroup.Theirchildrendotosomeextent,butout-marriagereallyismostprevalentinthethirdgeneration.Themostrecentlarge-scalewaveofimmigrationhasproducedonlyfirst-orsecond-generationAmericans.
Regardlessoftherealdegreeofracialandethnicintermixingthatgoeson,thetestofablendedsocietywillbetheproportionofpeoplewhoidentifyasmultiracialormultiethnic.Untilnow,thatpercentagehasbeensmall.That'spartlybecausepeopletendtoassumetheracialorethnicidentityofoneparent--oftentheminorityparent,inthecaseofblacksandHispanics.Buttoalargeextent,thatidentityhasbeenimposedbysociety.
"IhaveaSpanishnameandIspeakSpanish,sopeopleseemeasbeingofSpanishorigin,"DelPinal,theCensusBureauofficial,explained.
Racialidentificationcanstemfromothersources,suchasheightenedethnicprideortheopportunitytobenefitfromaffirmativeactionandotherprograms.Overthelastfewdecades,havingNativeAmericanancestryhasapparentlybecomepopular.Between1970and1980,thenumberofpeoplewhochecked"AmericanIndian"ontheircensusformsgrewfrom800,000to1.4million,amuchfasterincreasethancouldbeaccountedforbybirthsminusdeaths."PeopledecidedtheywantedtoidentifyasAmericanIndians,tosomeextentbecauseofrisingethnicconsciousness,"observedJeffreyS.Passel,directoroftheImmigrationPolicyProgramattheUrbanInstituteandaformerdirectoroftheCensusBureau'sPopulationDivision.
ItisthispositiveapproachtoracialorethnicidentificationonwhichliberalelementsoftheJewishcommunityaretryingtocapitalize.Fortwomillennia,exogamywasamajortransgressionforJews.(Inmanycommunities,prayersforthedeadwererecitedforaJewwhomarriedanon-Jew.)Asaresult,out-marriagewasrare.BeforeWorldWarII,itamountedtolessthansevenpercentofJewishmarriages,accordingtoMayerofCUNY.Butin1970,aNationalJewishPopulationSurveydiscoveredthatinthepreviousfiveyears,30percentofnewJewishmarriagesweretonon-Jews.By1990,thatfigurewasmorethan50percent.
Aftermanymeetings,muchsoul-searchingandalotofacrimoniousdebate,varioussynagoguegroupsinthemostliberaldenominationsandJewishcivicorganizationsdecidedtoreversetheirapproach.Theystilltrytodiscourageintermarriage,butonceitoccurs,theytendtowelcomenewinterfaithfamilies.
RabbiDanielG.ZemelofTempleMicah,aReformcongregationinWashington,wasoneofthosewhoswitchedpositions.In1979,whenhewasordainedarabbi,Zemelrecalledrecently,"Ifeltthoserabbiswhoofficiatedatintermarriagesshouldbeexcommunicatedfromtherabbinicalassociations.Sincethattime,mythinkinghaschangedenormously."However,hesaid,hestilldoesnotpersonallyofficiateatinterfaithmarriages."Ithinkifyoucanfindwaystoconceiveofadiverse,heterogeneousJewishcommunity,thenthat'swhatwe'llbelookingatinthefuture,"hesaid.But,heacknowledged,thatwillrequirearevolutioninoutlookforthatcomponentoftheJewishcommunitythathasbeentiedtogethermorebyEuropeanethnicrootsthanbyitsreligiouspractices.
TheseachangecontemplatedbyZemelisinsomewaysanalogoustotheshiftrequiredbytheUnitedStatesasittransformsitselffromamostlywhitenationtoamultiracial,blendedsociety.Thefirststepdownthatpathisprobablyfiguringoutjustwhoweare.Andthatrequiresanaccuratecountofallcolorsandthevariousshadesinbetween.
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RochelleL.Stanfield,aformerstaffcorrespondentforNationalJournal,isaWashington,D.C.-basedfreelancewriterspecializingindemographicsandurbanaffairs.
多年来,人口普查局(CensusBureau)人口处副处长乔治.德尔皮奈尔(JorgeDelPinal)的工作就是将美国人口按照种族和民族分门别类:白人、黑人、拉美裔、亚裔,或印第安人。然而,他母亲是盎格鲁血统,父亲是拉美裔,他早就知道这种分法不总是切实可行的。
德尔皮奈尔解释说:"我的血统虽然一半一半,可身份最后还是被确定为拉美裔。"他说他因而明白了异族婚姻夫妇的苦衷,因为他们在填写政府表格时只能为孩子填上一个种族归属。这位人口普查局官员说"他们问,'为什么非要在父母二人中作出选择呢?'"
10年一次的人口普查又将在2000年举行。这次的情形就不同了,人们第一次可以在调查表中填上其所有种族归属。这样,人口普查局就能够更好地了解美国异族通婚的广度。
几年前,由于这种直接统计方法还没有实施,资深人口统计学家巴里.埃德蒙斯顿(BarryEdmonston)在指导美国科学院全国研究会(NationalResearchCounciloftheAmericanAcademyofSciences)所做移民研究时,便利用复杂的数学模型来计算异族婚姻是如何改变美国面貌的。他的研究成果概括在题为:《新美国人:移民对经济、人口和财政的影响》(TheNewAmericans:Economic,DemographicandFiscalEffectsofImmigration)报告中。而实际上埃德蒙斯顿根本用不着计算机统计就能了解美国社会的这种转变,因为他自己是出生在加拿大的白人,妻子莎朗.李(SharonLee)为社会学家,则是华裔美国人。他和家人便是这种变化活生生的范例。
事实上美国的面貌的确在改变。正如克林顿总统所说,不出三四十年,美国社会中将没有任何一个种族的人口占多数,"我们应该为此作好准备。"克林顿本人便是经常谈到族群宽容和多元文化的好处。其他人在争论移民政策问题。几乎所有的讨论都集中在一个不再由欧洲裔白人占主导地位的国家的潜在分裂性。
可是在表面现象之下却涌动着另一股潮流。如果疏导合理,这股潮流将会使美国更加融合而不是走向分裂。这种人口统计学意义上的逆向流动便是异族婚姻的大幅增加。
"人口统计涉及到十分个人化的问题。"华盛顿的美国企业研究院公共政策研究所(AmericanEnterpriseInstituteforPublicPolicyResearch)高级研究员本.J.瓦滕伯格(BenJ.Wattenberg)如是说。"这不是几个活动家嘴上说说的事,而是青年男女实际在做的事,即结婚生子。"
埃德蒙斯顿经过研究预测,到2050年,将有21%的美国人来自不同种/民族通婚的家庭,而今天这个比例估计只有7%。据他和其他研究人员估计在第三代拉美裔和亚裔美国人中至少有50%与异族通婚。异族婚姻在非洲裔美国人中仍然很少见。虽然如此,通婚比率还是从60年代的约1.5%大幅上升到今天的8%至10%。
人口组成上的这一深刻变化本来会在无人注意下悄然进行,因为官方的确无人理会这件事。联邦机构的传统作法是利用固定格式收集种族情况数据,即一人一族,很像历史悠久的选举原则。因而,人口普查局便根据调查表估计说不到2%的美国人声明他们有多重种族归属。由于缺乏更直接的统计方法,无人知晓人口组成状况到底怎样。
然而这种情形正在改观。2000年人口普查后,美国政府将更加心中有数。1997年,监管联邦统计行为的管理与预算办公室(OfficeofManagementandBudget)批准一项指令,即人们可以填上自己所有的种族归属。这项指令是某些利益集团相妥协的结果:有些要求在报表中加上"多种族"一栏,而另一些由于担心本集团人数减少而要求维持原状。
为作好2000年普查,人口普查局选择了三个地方进行调查试点。在加州萨克拉门托(Sacramen-to),5.4%的人声明有多种族归属,比许多专家的估计多了近两倍。数据还表明异族婚姻呈上升趋势。18岁以上的人有4.1%属多种族,而18岁以下的人中这一比例为8.1%。
同时,由于缺乏官方数据、种族问题情势日趋紧张、相互竞争的种/民族利益集团间相互猜疑,人们对异族婚姻在未来美国社会中的影响还没有形成一致看法。
一些社会学家认为,自本世纪初以来,美国便成为融合那么多来自欧洲的爱尔兰、意大利、德国等等家庭的大融炉,而亚裔与白种人、拉美裔与盎格鲁人的异族婚姻不过是新添加的成员罢了。不过,尽管黑人与白人通婚现象也在增多,许多社会学家却对非洲裔美国人能否融合持怀疑态度。
"我认为在美国,黑人和其他人种的界线几乎无法消除,"弗吉尼亚州(Virginia)乔治.梅森大学(GeorgeMasonUniversity)的历史学教授罗杰.威尔金斯(RogerWilkins)如是说。他还是一位资深民权主义者。"黑人总是一个难吸收的群体。尽管这样说,情况无疑在改变,"他继续说道。"只消看看那些俊男靓女模特儿做的电视广告就能明白。他们都不是纯白种人,那么他们是黑白混血,黑人与亚裔混血,还是拉美裔与白人混血?你根本无从知晓。"
还有人预测说卧室能做到其他催化剂无能为力的事。1996年,《新民主党人》(TheNewDemocrat)杂志中,AEI资深学者道格拉斯.J.贝沙洛夫(DouglasJ.Besharov)的一篇文章说,混合族裔青年人数日趋增长代表着"美国种族关系的最佳前景。"
多民族美国人协会(AssociationofMultiEthnicAmericans)主席拉莫那.道格拉斯(RamonaDouglass)兴致勃勃地说:"我们就是一个活生生的例子。不同种族或民族背景的两个人可以和谐地生活在一起,跨种族家庭实际上可以良好运转。"道格拉斯的母亲是美籍意大利人,父亲则是非洲裔美国人和印第安人的混血儿。
当然,也有很多人认为异族婚姻是一种慢性种族灭绝,最终将导致某些种族的消失。犹太人过去曾持有这种传统观念,他们一直极力保护其为数不多的成员免于因民族融合而失去自我。但是第二次世界大战以后,犹太人同外族通婚的比率极高,美国犹太主义者(AmericanJudaism)的进步力量便开始重新审视这一现象。他们仍然鼓励族内通婚,但不再规避与非犹太人结婚的人,而开始同异族婚姻夫妇建立良好关系。
"犹太人,至少其比较开明的分支,已从怒目相向转为主动求和,"埃贡.迈耶(EgonMayer)解释道。他是布鲁克林学院(Brook-lynCollege)的社会学教授,也是纽约市立大学(CityUniversityofNewYork)北美犹太人数据库(NorthAmericanJewishDataBank)的前任协同主管。"犹太人正在作极大努力向这些家庭伸出友好之手,欢迎他们,并从某种意义上说,共同品尝这块多元文化蛋糕。"
尽管社会学家能迅速指出犹太人和其他少数民族群体的差别,他们还是承认犹太人在发现和正视这种美国的种/民族融合过程中,他们对异族婚姻态度的演变也许能为整个国家提供一个范例。
大融炉
要想看到美国的新面孔,只消到杂货店看看贝蒂.克罗克(BettyCrocker)牌的食品包装盒就行了。自1936年白皮肤、蓝眼睛的贝蒂合成画像首次亮相以来,她的画像到现在已是第8版了。新画像中的贝蒂长着棕色的眼睛和黑色的头发。与前7任贝蒂相比,最新版的贝蒂肤色更加黝黑,面部特征则是白人、拉美裔、印第安人、非洲裔和亚裔后代的混和。
新贝蒂形象是90年代中期通过电脑技术融合75位不同类型妇女的照片后制作而成的。通用面粉公司(GeneralMillsInc.)的发言人说制作过程比较迅速,但也承认,将新形象推广到整个贝蒂.克罗克食品系列却花费了不少时间。
推广进程的缓慢暗含着美国种/民族融合的缓慢步伐。让社会明显意识到多血统美国人的存在的确要花很长时间。年轻苃的高尔夫球巨星泰戈.伍兹(TigerWoods)已将这种趋势在公众中宣传。他称自己是"高黑印亚人"(Cablinasian),即高加索人(Caucasi-an)、黑人(black)、印第安人(In-dian)和亚洲人(Asian)的混血儿。
基本上是市场,而不是政府,在这一融合进化进程中起着领头作用。时装业专家说现在最需要的就是多血统模特,特别是男性多血统模特。而电视广告也更倾向于选择多血统的儿童演员。
雇用混血模特和演员的广告代理商"并不是什么理想主义者,"维尔金斯说。"他们的目的是卖东西,所以他们对潮流的研究十分细致。因此,他们看中的是一个巨大的市场,需要那些非纯种白人,或极渴望美国成为真正大融炉的漂亮人儿来招徕顾客。"
严肃的学者开始谈论大融炉问题本身就反映了社会潮流的逆转。作为美国多样性的隐喻,大融炉这个概念首先在第一次世界大战后遭到质疑,因为那时欧洲各国移民涌入美国城市后,并没有被融合,而是各起炉灶,自成一体。
事实证明,当时谈论隐喻意义上的融炉尚为时过早,而且日后的熔炉也不是在市区。种/民族融合是第二次世界大战后在郊外开始发生的。市民从位于市区的意大利、爱尔兰、波兰或犹太人聚居区分散搬迁到各郊区。然后他们又把孩子送到大型公立大学读书,在那里虽然遇到了家住他方的别族孩子,但生活方式却仍然相似。
"大多数人都是在大学时或刚开始工作时遇到其潜在的配偶,"弗吉尼亚州里士满大学(UniversityofRichmond)教授、社会学家莎朗.李如是说。"接受大学教育时,你有可能处在能接触各种民族背景的人的环境中。这样,和异族通婚的机率加大了。"李自己就是一例。她和她丈夫是在大学时代认识的。她丈夫是波特兰州立人口研究与普查中心(PortlandStateCenterforPopulationResearchandCensus)的主任。
美国劳动部养老与福利管理局(U.S.DepartmentofLabor'sPensionandWelfareBenefitsAndyistration)的特别助理戴维.曾(DavidTseng)也讲了自己类似的故事。他母亲来自厄瓜多尔,父亲则是中国派驻华盛顿的一名外交官的儿子。在50年代末,他父母亲的婚姻是极为罕见的,但曾说:"我想父母婚姻的成功得益于他们日常接触的人和朋友都受过教育、有才智,并能与其他国家、文化的人和睦相处。"
如今,这种情况经常出现在美国土生土长的亚裔美国人和拉美裔美国人中。埃德蒙斯顿指出"与传统的西南部和西部聚居区相比,居住在各族混居地区的亚裔和拉美裔美国人异族婚姻的比例非常高。"他摘引的一项研究表明,例如住在美国东北部新英格兰(NewEngland)地区的当地出生的亚裔年轻人异族通婚率高竓达80%。
具有讽刺意味的是,被许多分析家指责为导致分裂的移民增多和文化多元趋势的主要因素实际上促成了种族和民族的融合。"如果你把社会拆散成一个个种族碎片,那么根据数学原理,你遇到本族人的机率会越来越小,"瓦滕伯格说。"犹太人基本上便是这种状况。"
黑人是否会和其他少数民族一样汇入大融炉仍然有争执。怀疑者指出黑人与白人通婚的比率非常小,因此黑人的融合一时不会出现。也有人反驳说,比率小的原因是统计基数太小了,因为1967年以前,黑人与白人通婚在19个州都被视为违法。
对抗力量
尽管有许多力量在促进异族婚姻,也有因素在妨碍这一进程,对非洲裔美国人来说尤其如此。
越来越多的黑人上大学,跻身中产阶级,搬迁到郊区,他们也处于异族婚姻的潮流之中。根据雷诺兹.法利(ReynoldsFarley)对非洲裔美国人居住模式的研究,异族通婚趋势在加利福尼亚以及一些城市如德克萨斯州达拉斯(Dallas,Texas)、内华达州拉斯维加斯(LasVegas,Nevada)和亚利桑那州菲尼克斯(Phoenix,Arizona)尤其明显,因为它们和美国东北部及中西部的老城市相比,居住隔离的情况没有那么突出。埃德蒙斯顿指出,例如在加州,25至34岁的非洲裔美国人中,14%的已婚黑人妇女和32%的已婚黑人男子有异族配偶。
然而,在美国东北部和中西部城市居民状况泾渭分明的市区内,旧有的模式依然存在。法利说,"黑人人口中有相当一部分仍住在底特律(Detroit)、芝加哥、纽约的贫民区。这些城市的内城地区还未经历经济高度增长。"法利说"那些人跟不上,被远远舍弃在一边。"
法利以前是密歇根大学(UniversityofMichigan)的教授,现任纽约市拉塞尔.塞奇基金会(RussellSageFoundation)副会长。
另一股对抗力量是移民。移民通常不会与其种/民族外的人通婚。他们的孩子有一部分会与异族通婚,但只有到第三代这种现象才变得普遍。然而从最近一次大规模移民潮至今,还只有第一和第二代移民。
无论种/民族混融实际达到了什么程度,检验社会融合程度只能靠声明自己是多种/民族归属的人的比率的判断。迄今为止,这一比率还很低。部分原因是人们倾向于选择父母二人中一种/民族身份-通常选择具有少数种/民族身份的父亲或母亲,例如黑人或拉美裔人。而在很大程度上,这种身份选择是由社会强加的。
人口普查局官员戴尔皮奈尔解释说。"我有个西班牙名字,说西班牙语,所以人们把我的祖籍看做是西班牙。"
种族身份的认定也取决于其他原因,如民族自豪感增强,或可从肯定性行动计划(affirmativeaction)或其他项目中获益。在过去几十年中,印第安人血统显然颇受青睐。1970年至1980年间,在人口普查表上声明属"美洲印第安人"的人口数量从80万增至140万,造成这一增长速度的原因远不止于"出生人口减去死亡人口"。"人们决定要美洲印第安人的身份,这在某种程度上是出于不断增强的民族意识,"城市研究所(UrbanInstitute)移民政策项目(ImmigrationPolicyProgram)主任杰弗里.S.帕塞尔(JeffreyS.Passel)说。帕塞尔曾任人口普查局人口处(CensusBureauPopulationDivision)处长。
犹太人中的开明分子正是力图用这种对待种/民族身份的积极态度。两千年来,异族通婚一直是犹太人的一大禁忌。(在许多犹太人中,诅咒一个与外族通婚的犹太人,就背诵为死人祈祷的祷文。)因此,与外族通婚非常少见。据纽约市立大学的迈耶统计,第二次世界大战前异族通婚者在所有已婚犹太人中所占比例不到7%。但1970年,一项全国犹太人口普查(NationalJewishPopula-tionSurvey)显示在过去5年中,新婚犹太人有30%是与外族人结婚。到1990年,这一比率已超过50%。
经过多次会议,多次诚挚的自我反省和多次言辞尖刻的争论,各种各样最不保守教派的犹太会堂组织和犹太人市民组织决定改变他们的策略。他们仍然尽量不鼓励异族婚姻,但一旦既成事实,他们便欢迎这些多信仰的家庭。
设在华盛顿的改革派教会弥迦会堂(TempleofMicah)的拉比但以理.G.泽梅尔(DanielG.Zemel)便是转变立场的人之一。泽梅尔最近回忆道,1979年他被授与拉比职位,"我当时认为应把那些主持异族结婚婚礼的拉比从拉比协会中驱逐出去。可后来,我的思想发生了很大变化

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